India's
Military Diplomacy: An Overview
Singh, Dr. Amar (2023), "
Abstract:
Major
world powers have used military diplomacy as a tool to further their national
interest. Historically India was reluctant to project its military might
despite being one of the top five military power of the world. However, with
the changing geopolitical environment, India adopted a more assertive role in the world arena. New Delhi has multiplied military-to-military collaboration
agreements and training exercises with countries on all continents, increasing
arms sales, while remaining a major contributor to United Nations peacekeeping
missions. This article is an effort to understand the role of the country’s armed
forces in diplomacy.
Keywords:
Military Diplomacy, Defence Diplomacy
Introduction:
Military
diplomacy is broadly understood as military-to-military interactions,
activities and policies to build and maintain national security. The term
diplomacy is a derivative of the ancient Greek word diploma. The word diplo,
meaning ‘folded in two’, and the suffix -ma, meaning ‘an object’, came to
denote documents through which princes granted favours.1 In more
contemporary times, the term ‘diplomacy’ has been distilled to refer to an
established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign
governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation and other measures short
of war or violence.2 It has mostly been a discipline better
understood by its practitioners in the Foreign Service. Similarly, military
diplomacy as a discipline has been limited to the understanding of an even
smaller community within the armed forces. Though rightfully an oxymoron (since
the use of the word ‘military’ construes the use of ‘force’ to settle
differences, while ‘diplomacy’ means the exact opposite), the term and its
practice has gained currency with a majority of the armed forces since the end
of the Cold War. Military diplomacy is developed and implemented conjointly by
the foreign and defence ministries and is often associated with conflict
prevention and application of the military. It is distinct from the concept of
‘coercive diplomacy’ which is generally motivated by the desire to intimidate
potential adversaries.3 Military diplomacy is an instrument within
the larger foreign policy ‘tool basket’ of a country.4
What
is Military Diplomacy?
The
concept of “military diplomacy” implies that in conducting relations between
states in their many dimensions, which is the core function of diplomacy, the
military has a role that goes beyond the security and defence of the country
against external threats and spills into avoidance of conflict and promotion of
peace, building sustainable cooperative relationships and trust, perception
management, changing mindsets, clarifying elements of our foreign policy to
interlocutors and generally improving understandings with those they interact
with externally. “Military diplomacy” also assumes that the three Services, the
Army, Navy and Air Force, have a coordinated view of their diplomatic role and
mechanisms exist to produce a shared and coherent perspective.5 There
is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes military diplomacy or
defence diplomacy. By its broadest definition, almost every externally-oriented
military activity can be considered military diplomacy, as it would constitute
an extension of international policy. However, few definitions are discussed
below:
Military force is, as the Prussian military
theorist Carl von Clausewitz famously noted, “a true political
instrument, a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other
means. Most military operations that have ultimately diplomatic purposes –
including coercive force, peacekeeping operations, and evacuation and rescue
operations – are meant to achieve specific tactical and operational objectives.
Anton du Plessis, a professor of political science in Pretoria, defines
military diplomacy as the “use of military personnel, including service
attaches, in support of conflict prevention and resolution. Among a great
variety of activities, it includes providing assistance in the development of
democratically accountable armed forces”. Also it is “the use of armed forces
in operations other than war, building on their trained expertise and
discipline to achieve national and foreign objectives abroad”.Andrew Cottey
and Anthony Foster offer a more comprehensive definition of defence
diplomacy as “the peacetime use of armed forces and related infrastructure
(primarily defence ministries) as a tool of foreign and security policy” and
more specifically the use of military cooperation and assistance.6
Sun
Tzu
dictates “diplomacy and war are not just closely related—they comprise a
continuous, seamless activity (with diplomacy) the best means of attaining his
ideal of victory without bloodshed”. Peter Leahy proclaims that “in an
increasingly complex global security environment defence diplomacy adds a new
and very useful dimension to traditional diplomacy”.Bhubhindar Singh and Tan
See Seng define defence diplomacy as “the cooperative activities undertaken
by militaries and the related infrastructure during peacetime”. The Ministry
of Defence, Government of India, in its Annual Report for the year 2014–15
states that “Defence cooperation is an important part of diplomacy to
strengthen our bilateral cooperation with friendly foreign countries and to advance our foreign policy objectives. It encompasses activities undertaken by
the Ministry of Defence and the Armed Forces to avoid hostilities build and
maintain trust and make a significant contribution towards conflict prevention
and resolution”.7 However, ‘Defence’
(related to all components of the Ministry of Defence) is a broader umbrella term
which subsumes the ‘Military’ (Army, Navy and Air Force); hence, Military
Diplomacy is a subset of Defence Diplomacy.
From the above observation we can say that ‘military
diplomacy’ performs certain basic functions, which include the following:
· Gathering and
analysing information on the armed forces and the security situation in the
receiving state;
· Promotion of
cooperation, communication and mutual relations between the armed forces of the
sending and the receiving state; Ex: joint military exercises, and ship visits.
·
Organization of
working visits of representatives of the defence authorities;
·
Support of business
contracts in arms and military equipment;
·
Representation at
official ceremonies and other events in the receiving state.8
·
knowledge of modern
concepts and techniques of combating newer traditional and
non-traditional threats, each other’s Standard Operating Procedures to ensure
inter-operability can be shared for mutual benefits.
·
The education and training of foreign
officers and cadets,
· Cooperation in both natural and man-made – counter-insurgency and terrorist challenges, pandemic threats, anti-piracy operations
and synergy in various humanitarian assistance and disaster
relief operations in foreign countries. 9
The military is, in actual fact, a powerful instrument of
advancing a country’s foreign policy interests. The international system is
still based on power politics and rapport of force despite the rhetoric of a
values-based and rules-based international order, with the strong dominating
the weak and largely having their say even as the international community has
evolved norms and established institutions to control and temper the arbitrary
exercise of power, albeit with limited success. Even when actual military power
is not used, the possession of a compelling military capacity gives a country a great advantage as others will seek to accommodate its demands, adjust their
own policies accordingly and avoid a frontal challenge as much as possible when
interests clash.10
We
live in a strategic environment, there are no permanent friends or enemies.
Commercial interests and economic gains have begun to play an increasingly
prominent role, leading to traditional allies doing business with traditional
foes. The best example is Russia and USA selling weapons to both India and
Pakistan. USA, UK, France and the NATO nations could be considered the world
leaders in military diplomacy. China has been aggressively enlarging its
military-diplomatic efforts and could also be considered amongst the leaders.
India, with a long tradition of use of military diplomacy, is also ramping up
its efforts, albeit, in its own slow and perplexed style under the overly
centralised and bureaucratic control of its ministries of external affairs and
defence.11To put it in simple and clear-cut terms, military/defence
diplomacy aims to achieve both national security and a nation’s foreign policy
objectives.
How
is India increasing its Defence Diplomacy?
India is no different in the process of conducting diplomacy. However, conducting diplomacy by the means of the military in a more assertive way is perhaps a new innovation in India’s diplomatic parlance. Traditionally in the Indian diplomatic and foreign policy community, diplomacy was carried out by the ministers and diplomats that largely belong to the old school. The military has largely remained aloof from the issue of promoting the country’s national interests in international forums. However Sometime in the latter half of 2013, six-point formula for stepping up the nation’s military diplomacy was finalized.
- ·
leverage the military element of national power towards
the furtherance of the national interest;
· contribute to the national security environment by developing shared confidence amongst the armed forces;
· strengthen defence relations to promote India’s influence in the region;
· establish a presence commensurate with India’s strategic interests and the comfort level of the host nation;
· assist friendly foreign countries in developing defence capabilities consistent with India’s security needs;
exploit India’s presence in UN Missions to further the national interest.12
The
historical record shows that while India’s efforts have been admirable, certain
steps can still be taken to purposefully improve India’s abilities in each of
these domains.
DefenceExports: The
focus of India’s defence or military diplomacy has been broadened in recent
years. The particular focus has been on the issue of defence autarky, the
absolute necessity of which was felt in the aftermath of the Covid-19 pandemic.
In recent years, India has been trying and has been quite successful in weaning
its image from being a defence importer to that of a defence exporter. With a
target of INR 36500 crores for defence exports by 2025, India has intensified
its efforts to sell weapons to Southeast Asia and Africa, where Chinese defence
companies dominate. Due to such efforts, the exports have soared to INR 11607
crores in 2021-22, from just INR 1,940.64 in 2014-15 (see table 1), although
there is a long way to go.13
Table1:
India’s defence exports
|
Year |
Defence exports (Rs. in crores) |
|
2014-15 |
1,940.64 |
|
2015-16 |
2,059.18 |
|
2016-17 |
1,521.91 |
|
2017-18 |
4,682.36 |
|
2018-19 |
10,745.77 |
|
2019-20 |
9,115.55 |
|
2020-21 |
8,434.84 |
|
2021-22 |
11607 |
India’s intense
military diplomacy has been paying off with Philippines becoming the first
country in the world to procure the Brahmos
supersonic cruise missile batteries for a deal worth $375 million.
Similarly, Bahrain has
evinced interest in buying the new upgraded and more lethal Arjun Mark 2 tanks
from India. Egypt has shown interest in getting India's homegrown
defence technologies, such as LCA Tejas, radar technology, missile
technology like Akash missile system and DRDO's Smart Anti-Airfield Weapon
(SAAW).14Besides the measures to expand the domestic defence
industrial base and boost exports, the government has strengthened the role of
defence attaches located in Indian embassies abroad. The government has
allocated them an annual budget of up to US$50,000 to promote Indian defence
equipment in their respective markets. Beyond exports, India has also helped
its immediate neighbours to build their naval capability by donating and
transferring equipment. This includes off-shore patrol vessels to Mauritius
(2015), Sri Lanka (2018), Maldives (2019), and Seychelles (2021), as well as
two Dornier aircraft to Seychelles (2013 & 2018). Although small, with
these steps, India hopes to buttress its role as a ‘net security provider’ for
the region.15
Humanitarian
Assistance: A testimony to the growing use and
popularity of military diplomacy is the conspicuous role played by the Indian
armed forces in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) and
transnational conflicts. For long, India has been leading on the HADR
operations front, as seen during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2015 Nepal
earthquake, and the 2020 floods in Madagascar. Moreover, as extreme weather events
in the region increase the propensity for natural disasters, particularly in
the Bay of Bengal region, India is coordinating with partner countries to
enhance its response mechanism. HADR remains an important focus area within the
Quad, but India has also undertaken initiatives like the PANEX-21 exercise with
the BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation) countries to envisage contingencies for such operations in the
backdrop of the pandemic. Further, the Indian military has been instrumental in
evacuating civilians of not just India but also other nationals like during Operation
Rahat in Yemen in 2015, Operation Devi
Shakti in Afghanistan in 2021 and Operation Ganga in
Ukraine in 2022.16
Training: India has used training as part of its military outreach quite well. According to Lt Gen
Sunil Srivastava, Commandant, Officers Training Academy, Gaya, “Training cadets
from foreign countries gives us the opportunity to have better relations with
friendly counties. It is a very important aspect of military diplomacy,”17 India
has trained and is training, a large number of Asian and African countries
officers. Foreign military officers from several countries attend and
participate in our higher level defence courses, especially in the National
Defence College. At least 38 countries are sending their defence personnel for
training in India. 18
Role
of Defence Attaches: A Defence Attache (DA) is a Military
diplomatic footprint in the host nation for facilitating the military exchanges
between two countries. DAs are the linchpins of defence diplomacy. Defence
Attaches share ground-level experiences and concerns to enhance Defence
Cooperation. The DAs can help in conveying a national point of view to the
respective host country and ensure that the government line is being followed.19 India
has defence attaches posted or accredited to
something like 85 countries. (According to reports, the posting of another 10 defence attaches to ten more
countries, are currently under processing.) Not many countries — except big
powers — can match this impressive tally.
Security
and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR): Since
2014, the Modi government has bolstered the use of the military in the diplomacy of
the country. The unveiling of the SAGAR doctrine by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at a speech in Mauritius in 2015 which sought to bolster India’s
commitment and presence in the strategic Indian Ocean Region (IOR). India seeks
to deepen economic and security cooperation with its maritime neighbours and
assist in building their maritime security capabilities. For this, India would
cooperate on the exchange of information, coastal surveillance, the building of
infrastructure and strengthening their capabilities. Further, India seeks to
safeguard its national interests and ensure the Indian Ocean region to become
inclusive, and collaborative and respects international law. The Indian Navy with its
potent and lethal naval arsenal of over 120 ships has played a
crucial role in carrying out military diplomacy, particularly in the form of
promoting a free open and inclusive Indo-Pacific region. It has, through the
plethora of naval exercises such as Milan and Malabar,
demonstrated that it is committed not just to the protection of India’s own
territories and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) but also would quickly come to
the aid of its allies and would not desist from playing an offensive role
against rivals most notably Pakistan and China.20
Joint
Military Exercises: The Indian Army conducts joint exercises
with a large number of friendly foreign countries. The aim of these exercises
is to acquaint both forces with each other’s operating procedures, weapon
systems, and operational drills, in addition to increasing understanding and
interoperability between the two armies and forging closer partnership.21In
the area of joint military exercises the military arm of our diplomacy has been
particularly active. India does naval (18 countries), land (18 countries) and air
(10) exercises with a whole host of countries. India also participates in the
biennial Rim of the Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC), the world’s largest
international maritime warfare exercise, hosted by the US Navy.
These
numerous military exercises with multiple strategic partners depict the departure
of India’s traditional coyness about engaging in military exercises as a thing
of the past and these exercises reflect India’s comfort level and confidence in
engaging a number of new security partners who are critical in addressing the
China problem. India’s engagement with new security partners has assumed
greater sense of purpose. Second, traditionally, the Indian Navy was seen as
the outgoing force that engaged in joint exercises with other countries but in
a reflection of the changed security circumstances, India’s army and air force
are also active in such military engagements with like-minded partners.22
Deepening
of defence ties:
·
Other than military exercises, India has
begun deepening its overalldefence ties with the US with the earlier signing of
the logistics agreement (LEMOA) and most recently the inter-operability
agreement (COMCASA). These agreements signal a deepening of the India-US
strategic partnership with a geo-political message to our two principal
adversaries- China and Pakistan. India is now looking at the third foundational
agreement- BECA- for which we have asked the US to propose a text.23
The Joint Strategic Vision for the Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions signed
with the Obama administration in 2015 implies much closer cooperation between
the Indian and US naval forces in what is now termed as the Indo-Pacific.
Exchanges between the Indian navy and the US Naval Forces Central Command will
be instituted to facilitate coordination in the western Indian Ocean which is
outside the jurisdiction of the US Indo-Pacific Command at Hawaii. India will
also post a liaison officer at CENTCOM.24
· India has also enhanced its diplomacy with countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Given China’s increasing belligerence in Southeast Asia, India has built formidable military ties with China’s neighbours like Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan etc. This involves negotiating with these countries albeit with the exception of Japan under the framework of Quad+ with a strong emphasis on the military dimension.25Further, the outreach of India’s military diplomacy is evident from the presence of the Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) with its headquarters presently at Gurugram, Haryana. It serves as the institutional centre of keeping the Indian Ocean free from piracy, and naval rivalry and promotes synergy and esprit de corps among the regional littoral states. Recently, the Quad countries have pledged to contain illegal fishing by unidentified fishing vessels which are often escorted by naval vessels in an indirect yet firm reference to Chinese transgression of the EEZ.26
· India’s defence diplomacy is not just limited to the Indo-Pacific region, it has expanded westward as well. The rapid turn of West Asian geopolitics in terms of peace and tranquility has experienced a fillip thanks to the Abraham Accords of 2020 which normalised ties between Israel and four other Arab states – Bahrain, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Sudan and Morocco. In that context, India has been a net gainer as it conducted back-to-back joint naval exercises with the UAE (Zayed Talwar exercise), Bahrain (Maritime Partnership Exercise), and Saudi Arabia (Al-Mohed Al-Hindi exercise). Notably, the India-Saudi Arabia exercise was the first joint exercise between the two.27 India has also had high-level military exchanges with all these courtiers.
·
UN Peacekeeping Missions: Indian
peacekeepers have served in UN peacekeeping missions around the world. So far India has taken part in 49
Peacekeeping missions with a total contribution exceeding 200,000 troops and a
significant number of police personnel having been deployed and more than 160
Indian peacekeepers have paid the ultimate price in service to peace, losing
their lives serving under the UN flag as of September 2022.28
Challenges: India’s
military diplomacy is, however, not a fairy tale story. First, the basket of
military diplomacy is still limited to a few countries, and also limited in
numbers. While India's late start is certainly responsible for that, there has
also been some domestic ideological opposition to military exchanges with
countries like the US. Often, they fail to factor in strategic advantages that
accrue from such collaboration. Second, India is not able to harness military
diplomacy due to the demand-supply disequilibrium with military modernisation.
While countries like China have made considerable investments in military
modernisation, India lags behind. Third, India still does not have a diplomatic
presence in many of the continental countries in Africa as well as littoral countries
of the Indian Ocean region. Also, its trade linkages with these countries are
very shallow so as to create 'stakes' for these countries. Much of the military
diplomatic activities are, therefore, born out of agreements reached
with individual countries, rather than being part of a grand strategy. Fourth,
often external factors tend to neutralize India's military diplomacy. Witness, for example, the recent spate of piracy in the Gulf of Aden, which could
be attributed to utter lawlessness in Somalia. The ongoing crisis in Congo has
posed a moral dilemma for Indian peacekeepers, due to the emergence of hostile
elements and a perceptible shift towards a different mandate. Fifth, there are
significant players competing with India with more resources and lucrative
terms of engagement. China, for example, has institutionalised military
diplomacy not only in the Indian Ocean but also on the continents of Africa and
Latin America.29
Way
Forward: With a focus on containing the adverse regional
fallout of the unfolding security situation in Pakistan and Afghanistan while
simultaneously tackling the growing Chinese maritime assertiveness in the
Indo-Pacific, India has increasingly leveraged its defence forces to shape
regional diplomacy.
·
Present initiatives by armed forces are
helping India build a sustained cooperative engagement and create a web of
partnerships throughout the region. Sustaining these partnerships will require
India to invest more in its naval, expeditionary, and logistic capabilities.
·
The world is currently in a state of
flux particularly due to the Russo-Ukraine war which has turned the west and
the world’s attention to the security situation in Europe. While the outcome of
the war is the key for India, it is absolutely crucial from the defence
perspective that India needs to expeditiously expand its defence basket.
·
India needs to increase the use of
indigenous technology for important programs like fighter jets and aircraft
carriers.
·
India needs to work for a free, open and
rules-based Indo-Pacific as it is important for the economic development of not
only the region but also the wider global community.30
The
security challenges that India faces require a much closer association of our
military in assessing them and devising a comprehensive strategy to deal with
them. Progress has been made in this regard by positioning military officers in
the National Security Council Secretariat. Some military officers have been
appointed to positions in the Ministry of External Affairs as well. This would
surely create better synergy between the two Ministries. Even if optimal levels
have not been reached, the role of the Indian military in India’s foreign
policy has expanded.
Conclusion: Defence
Diplomacy has become an important component in India’s foreign policy and contributes
towards achieving our national goals. Military Diplomacy is quite quickly
becoming a vital aspect of foreign policy, as seen developing among powerful states, such as the United States, China, the United Kingdom, and
Russia. On diplomacy related to access to bases, maritime security in the
Indian Ocean, export of arms, military exercises and so on, India’s policies
have evolved in a way that expands the room for its Armed Forces to contribute
to the achievement of its foreign policy objectives. Military diplomacy is so
vital for a state to not only ensure its stable and strong international
position but also etch a structured and functional security policy. Military diplomacy
is not exclusive to foreign policy. Hence, instead of pursuing an independent
course per se both the foreign and defence policies should work in tandem and
should ensure that the national interests of the country are placed first.
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LEMOA means one partner trusts the other
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